Einführung
In drei größeren Werken (1975, 1976 und 1984) entwickelte Otto Kernberg eine Klassifikation von Persönlichkeitsstörungen auf dem Boden dreier, klinisch unterscheidbarer, umfassender Persönlichkeitsorganisationen. Dabei liegt der Schwerpunkt der Einteilung auf der Güte der internalisierten Objektbeziehungen und der Ich-Struktur, ohne jedoch triebdynamische Aspekte außer acht zu lassen. Sie bildet somit eine Art Synthese zwischen der Lehre der klassischen Psychoanalyse, insbesondere aber auch ihrer erweiterten Form nach Fenichel (vgl. oben) und den Erkenntnissen der Objektbeziehungstheorie, insbesondere den Arbeiten Jacobsons, aber auch, trotz eindeutiger Abgrenzungen, Melanie Kleins.
Innerhalb dieser Klassifikation gilt Kernbergs besonderes Interesse den schweren Persönlichkeitsstörungen und hier neben der narzißtischen P. v.a. dem Borderline-Syndrom, welches er weniger über seine zwar charakteristischen, deskriptiv faßbaren Symptome, als vielmehr über eine „relativ spezifische und auffallend stabile pathologische Ichstruktur“ definiert und das innerhalb seines Klassifizierungssystems den Rang einer eigenständigen „Gruppe psychischer Störungsformen“ im Sinne einer grundlegenden, von neurotischen oder psychotischen Strukturen klar abgrenzbaren spezifischen „Persönlichkeitsstruktur“ bzw. später „Persönlichkeitsorganisation“ bekleidet.Er grenzt sich damit explizit gegenüber Vorstellungen ab, die das Borderline-Syndrom als einen unbestimmten Grenzbereich zwischen Neurose und Psychose ansiedeln. Darüberhinaus lassen sich nach dieser Theorie verschiedenartigste pathologische Persönlichkeiten, wie die infantile oder die narzißtische Persönlichkeitsstörung, die klinisch durchaus unterschiedlich imponieren, aufgrund der spezifischen pathologischen Ich-Struktur als der Gruppe der Borderlinepersönlichkeitstruktur zugehörig einordnen. Obgleich die letztendliche Zuordnung offensichtlich nach der Güte der Ich-Struktur und damit der Güte der internalisierten Objektbeziehungen sowie der vorherrschenden Abwehrmechanismen erfolgt, gibt es auch im deskriptiv faßbaren Bereich charakteristische Merkmale, die auf das Vorleigen einer Borderline-Störung hinweisen. Diese sollen nach Kernberg weiter unten besprochen werden.
1996 veröffentlichte Kernberg eine modifizierte Form seines psychoanalytischen Klassifikationsmodells und schrieb, nach Vornahme einer Abgrenzung gegenüber dimensionalen und kategorialen Systemen: „Im Mittelpunkt meiner eigenen Klassifizierung von Persönlichkeitsstörungen steht die Dimension der Schwere. Abstufungen der Schwere der Störung sind: a) psychotische Persönlichkeitsorganisation, b) Borderline-Persönlichkeitsorganisation, c) neurotische Persönlichkeitsorganisation.“
Insbesondere in zwei Punkten geht diese Darstellung über die vorherigen hinaus. Zum einen legt Kernberg seine Auffassungen über die wesentlichen Komponenten der normalen Persönlichkeit dar und gibt erste Hinweise für positive Korrelationen zu Ergebnissen aus neurobiologischen Arbeitsgebieten. Zum anderen versucht er die verschiedenen Persönlichkeitsstörungen unter genetischen und dynamischen Gesichtspunkten hierarchisch zu ordnen und miteinander zu verknüpfen.
Kurze zusammenfassende Darstellung des Konzeptes aufgrund der o.g. Arbeiten
Bei dieser, schrittweise entwickelten, Klassifikation lassen sich die klinisch beobachtbaren Persönlichkeitsstörungen (z.B. hysterische P., narzißtische P. etc.) drei unterschiedlich reifen „Strukturniveaus“ zuordnen, die sich durch „drei Hauptebenen der Triebfixierung“, das Kriterium der „Überich-Entwicklung“ und „Überich-Integration“, „Zwei Ebenen der Abwehrorganisation des Ichs“, sowie durch die Güte der „Internalisierung der Objektbeziehungen“ voneinander unterscheiden lassen (Kernberg, 1976). Das entscheidende Kriterium für die Zuordnung bildet darunter die Qualität der internalisierten Objektbeziehungen, die Kernberg als „Substrukturen des Ich, …, die ihrerseits hierarchisch organisiert sind“ versteht . Dabei findet man bei der Zuordnung zwar häufigere und seltenere Konstellationenen, es gibt jedoch durchaus Persönlichkeitsstörungen, die sich auf verschiedenen „Strukturniveaus“ darstellen können. So zeigen etwa narzißtische P. häufig ein niedriges Strukturniveau, können aber auch höher strukturiert sein. Umgekehrt zeigen hysterische P. nach Kernberg in aller Regel ein höheres oder mittleres Strukturniveau, können aber auch niedrig strukturiert sein (Vgl. Kernberg 1975, 1976). Die diagnostische Erfassung des „Strukturniveaus“ ist von erheblicher Bedeutung, weil sie ihrerseits eine Zuordnung zu drei übergeordneten und hierarchisch definierten „Persönlichkeitsorganisationen“, nämlich einer „neurotischen“, einer „Borderline-Persönlichkeitsorganisation“ und einer „psychotischen“, ermöglicht (Kernberg 1984).
Zum Begriff der Persönlichkeitsorganisation
In der ersten, abstrakten, Konzeption dieses Begriffes bilden diese „Persönlichkeitsorganisationen, ungeachtet der genetischen, konstitutionellen, biochemischen, familiären, psychodynamischen oder psychosozialen Faktoren, die zur Ätiologie der Krankheit beitragen“ die „Matrix, aus der sich Verhaltenssymptome entwickeln“ und sind damit gleichzeitig „Stabilisator für den psychischen Apparat“ .
Der Arbeit von 1996 zufolge gibt die „Persönlichkeitsorganisation“ die „Dimension der Schwere“ einer Persönlichkeitsstörung an.
Der Strukturbegriff bei Otto Kernberg
Zur Verdeutlichung und zur Handhabung des Strukturbegriffes hier noch eine kurze Passage von Kernberg:
„Diese Organisationstypen von Neurose, Borderline-Zustand und Psychose reflektieren sich in den dominierenden Persönlichkeitsmerkmalen des Patienten, insbesondere hinsichtlich 1. des Grades seiner Identitätsintegration, 2. der Typen von Abwehrmechanismen, deren er sich gewöhnlich bedient, 3. seiner Fähigkeit zur Realitätsprüfung. Ich meine, daß die neurotische Persönlichkeitsstruktur, im Gegensatz zu den Strukturen von Borderline-Zuständen und Psychosen, eine integrierte Identität impliziert. Die neurotische Persönlichkeitsstruktur weist eine Abwehrorganisation auf, die sich um Verdrängung und andere Abwehrmechanismen der mittleren oder höheren Ebene zentriert. Im Gegensatz dazu findet man Strukturen von Borderline-Zuständen und Psychosen bei Patienten, bei denen primitive Abwehrmechanismen dominieren, die sich um den Mechanismus der Spaltung zentrieren. Die Realitätsprüfung ist in der Persönlichkeitsorganisation des Neurotikers und des Borderline-Patienten erhalten, in der des Psychotikers ist sie jedoch erheblich beeinträchtigt. Diese strukturellen Kriterien können die üblichen verhaltensmäßigen oder phänomenologischen Beschreibungen von Patienten ergänzen und zu größerer Genauigkeit der Differentialdiagnose bei psychischer Krankheit beitragen, insbesondere in schwer zu klassifizierenden Fällen. Zusätzliche Kriterien, die helfen, die Borderline- Persönlichkeitsorganisation von den Neurosen zu differenzieren, sind das Vorhandensein oder Fehlen unspezifischer Äußerungen von Ichschwäche, besonders von Angsttoleranz, von Impulskontrolle und der Fähigkeit zur Sublimierung und – für die Differentialdiagnose der Schizophrenie – das Vorhandensein oder Fehlen von Primärprozeßdenken in der klinischen Situation….Der Grad und die Qualität der Überich-Integration sind zusätzliche, für die Prognose wesentliche Strukturmerkmale, die zur Differenzierung von Neurose und Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur beitragen.“
Im Gegensatz zu seinen Vorgängern (z.B. Fenichel 1945) entwirft Kernberg (1976) seine Klassifizierung von Persönlichkeitsstörungen nicht mehr „auf der Grundlage der verschiedenen Stadien der Libidoentwicklung“, sondern auf der Basis von klinisch beobachtbaren „drei Hauptebenen der Triebfixierung…: eine höhere Ebene, auf der das Primat der Genitalität erreicht ist; eine mittlere Ebene, auf der prägenitale, besonders orale, Regressions- und Fixierungspunkte überwiegen; und eine niedere Ebene, auf der eine pathologische Verdichtung von genitalen und prägenitalen Triebstrebungen stattfindet, wobei die prägenitale Aggression überwiegt.“ In Anlehnung an Jacobson (1964) geht er ferner „von der Annahme aus, daß ein relativ gut integriertes, wenn auch extrem strenges Überich nur die höhere Strukturebene der Charakterpathologie kennzeichnet, und daß die mittlere und niedere Strukturebene einen unterschiedlich ausgeprägten Mangel an Überich-Integration und die Vorherrschaft sadistischer Überich-Vorläufer und andere Überich-Komponenten reflektieren.“
Darüber hinaus repräsentieren die drei Strukturniveaus unterschiedliche Abwehrmechanismen des Ichs. Kernberg geht „von zwei Ebenen der Abwehrorganisation des Ichs aus: 1. einer grundlegenden Ebene, auf der primitive Dissoziierung oder Spaltung der entscheidende Mechanismus ist, und 2. einer höheren Ebene, auf der die Verdrängung zum zentralen Mechanismus wird und an die Stelle der Spaltung tritt. In meiner Klassifizierung zeigt die höhere Strukturebene der Charakterpathologie die für die höhere Ebene der Abwehrorganisation charakteristische Verdrängung, zusammen mit verwandten Mechanismen wie Intellektualisierung, Rationalisierung, Ungeschehenmachen und höheren Ebenen der Projektion. Dasselbe gilt grundsätzlich für die mittlere Strukturebene der Charakterpathologie; nur zeigt der Patient hier noch zusätzlich einige jener Abwehrmechanismen, die in stärkerer Ausprägung die niedere Ebene charakterisieren. Auf dieser niederen Ebene überwiegt die Dissoziierung oder Spaltung, bei der gleichzeitig die synthetische Funktion des Ichs geschwächt ist und die verwandten Mechanismen der Leugnung, der primitiven Formen von Projektion und der Omnipotenz auftreten. Meine Klassifikation geht von einem Kontinuum pathologischer Charakterzüge aus, das von sublimierenden Zügen am einen Ende über hemmende oder phobische und reaktive Züge bis zu triebdurchsetzten Zügen am anderen Ende reicht“ (vgl. auch Fenichel 1945). Bezüglich der „wechselnden Formen der internalisierten Objektbeziehungen“ geht Kernberg von folgender Überlegung aus: „Auf der höheren Ebene, auf der die Ichidentität und die ihr zugehörigen Komponenten, ein stabiles Selbstkonzept und eine stabile Vorstellungswelt, fest etabliert sind, gibt es keine spezifische Pathologie der Objektbeziehungen; dasselbe gilt für die mittlere Ebene, wenn auch hier die Objektbeziehungen konfliktreicher sind als auf der höheren Ebene. Auf der niederen Ebene besteht eine schwere Pathologie der Internalisierung der Objektbeziehungen. Die Objektbeziehungen haben hier eher einen >Partial<- als einen >Total<- Charakter.“
Die Charaktere der höheren Strukturebene nach Kernberg (1976)
- die meisten hysterischen Charaktere im Sinne von Abraham (1920); Easser und Lesser (1965) und Shapiro (1965)
- Zwangscharaktere im Sinne von Fenichel (1945) und
- depressiv-masochistische Charaktere im Sinne von Laughlin (1956)
Die Charaktere der „mittleren“ Ebene
- die meisten oralen Typen von Charakterpathologie im Sinne Abrahams (1921-1925), v.a. der Typ der „passiv-aggressiven“ Persönlichkeit (Brody und Lindbergh (1967)
- sadomasochistische Persönlichkeiten (Frank u.a. 1952)
- „einige der besser funktionierenden infantilen (oder „hysteroiden“) Persönlichkeiten“ (Easser und Lesser 1965; Zetzel 1968)
- „viele narzißtische Persönlichkeiten“ (Kernberg 1975) und
- „Patienten mit stabilem, ausgeprägtem, sexuell abweichendem Verhalten (Fenichel 1945), aber mit der Fähigkeit, innerhalb einer solchen Abweichung relativ stabile Objektbeziehungen herzustellen.
Die Charaktere der „niederen“ Ebene
- die „meisten infantilen Persönlichkeiten“ (z. B. Easser und Lesser 1965, Kernberg 1975, Zetzel 1968)
- „viele narzißtische Persönlichkeiten“ (z.B. Kernberg 1975)
- alle antisozialen Persönlichkeiten im Sinne Friedländers (1947) oder Cleckleys (1964)
- „die sogenannten chaotischen, triebhaften Charakterstörungen (Fenichel, 1945; W. Reich, 1933)
- „die „Als-ob“-Charaktere (Deutsch, 1942)
- „die „inadäquaten Persönlichkeiten“ (Brody und Lindbergh, 1967)“
- die meisten „sich selbst verstümmelnden“ Persönlichkeiten (s. Kernberg (1975)
- „Auch Patienten, die multiple sexuelle Abweichungen (oder eine Kombination von sexueller Abweichung und Drogenabhängigkeit oder Alkoholismus) aufweisen,
- und Patienten mit einer schweren Pathologie der Objektbeziehungen (die sich in ihren bizarren sexuellen Bedürfnissen reflektiert) sind auf dieser Ebene strukturiert“, s. a. (Frosch 1964; Kernberg 1975)
- letztlich die „sogenannten präpsychotischen Persönlichkeitsstrukturen, d.h. die hypomanischen, schizoiden und paranoiden Persönlichkeiten (Brody und Lindbergh, 1967; Shapiro, 1965)“
„Die nächste Stufe abwärts auf dieser Skala führt in den Bereich der Psychosen. Die niedere Strukturebene der Charakterpathologie, die ich beschrieben habe, weist die Gruppe von Patienten auf, die allgemein den Borderline-Störungen oder „psychotischen Charakteren“ zugeordnet werden (Frosch, 1964), oder die eine „Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur“ haben“ (Kernberg 1975)
Zusammenfassende Darstellung des modifizierten Konzepts (1996)
Die Änderungen zu früheren Ansichten werden nicht besonders erwähnt. Das grobe Konzept, insbesondere die Dreiteilung in psychotische, Borderline- und neurotische Persönlichkeitsorganisation bleibt bestehen, die jetzt explizit Ausdruck der Dimension der Schwere der Störung ist. Der Begriff des „Strukturniveaus“ wird nicht mehr eigens erwähnt, obgleich er implizit weiterhin erhalten ist und ein wichtiges Maß für die Einteilung der Kategorien darstellt.
Es ist ein neuer Aspekt dieses Modells, daß die Schwere der Persönlichkeitsstörungen an diesen Vorstellungen einer normalen Persönlichkeitsstruktur gemessen wird.
Die drei strukturellen Aspekte der Persönlichkeit
Das Temperament
Das Temperament ist definiert als „eine konstitutionell gegebene und größtenteils genetisch bedingte angeborene Disposition zu spezifischen Reaktionen auf Umweltreize, insbesondere die Intensität, den Rhythmus und die Schwelle der affektiven Reaktionen betreffend“
Zum Temperament führt Kernberg weiter aus, daß „affektive Reaktionen, insbesondere unter den Bedingungen höchster Erregung als die entscheidenden Determinanten der Persönlichkeitsorganisation“ aufzufassen seien und daß „angeborene Unterschiede in der Aktivierung von sowohl positiven, angenehmen und belohnenden als auch negativen, schmerzlichen, aggressiven Affekten…die wichtigste Brücke zwischen biologischen und psychologischen Determinanten der Persönlichkeit“ „bilden“.
Das Temperament umfasse außerdem „auch angeborene Dispositionen der kognitiven Organisation und des motorischen Verhaltens, wie z.B. hormonelle, insbesondere Testosteron-abhängige Unterschiede in kognitiven Funktionen und in Aspekten der Geschlechtsidentität, die männliche und weibliche Verhaltensmuster voneinander unterscheidet. Unter dem Gesichtspunkt der Persönlichkeitsstörungen sind jedoch die affektiven Aspekte des Temperaments von grundlegender Bedeutung.“
Der Charakter
Den Charakter definiert Kernberg über die „Verhaltensmanifestationen der Ich-Identität, wobei die Integration des „Selbst“-Konzepts und die Integration des Konzepts von „bedeutsamen anderen“ diejenigen intrapsychischen Strukturen bilden, die die dynamische Organisation des Charakters bestimmen.“
Über den Charakter führt Kernberg weiter aus, daß er auch „Verhaltensaspekte dessen (umfaßt), was in psychoanalytischer Terminologie „Ich-Funktionen“ und „Ich-Strukturen“ genannt wird.“
Die „Integration verschiedener Schichten des Über-Ich“
Über die Persönlichkeit und ihre strukturellen Anteile sagt Kernberg dann in einer Synthese der genannten drei Aspekte und unter Einbeziehung selbstpsychologischer Formulierungen folgendes aus:
„Die Persönlichkeit selbst kann demnach als die dynamische Integration aller Verhaltensmuster betrachtet werden, die sich aus dem Temperament, dem Charakter und den internalisierten Wertsystemen zusammensetzen.“ Sie ist „in erster Linie durch ein integriertes Konzept des Selbst und ein integriertes Konzept des „bedeutsamen anderen“ gekennzeichnet. Diese strukturellen Merkmale, die in ihrer Gesamtheit „Ich-Identität“ (Erikson 1956; Jacobson 1978) genannt werden, spiegeln sich in einem inneren Gefühl und einer äußeren Erscheinung von Selbst-Kohärenz wider und bilden die grundlegende Voraussetzung der normalen Selbstwertschätzung, Selbstliebe und Lebenslust.
Eine integrierte Sicht vom Selbst sichert die Fähigkeit für die Verwirklichung eigener Wünsche, Fähigkeiten und langfristigen Verpflichtungen.
Eine integrierte Sicht der „bedeutsamen anderen“ sichert die Fähigkeit für die angemessene Einschätzung der anderen, für Empathie und für die emotionale Besetzung anderer, die die Fähigkeit der reifen Abhängigkeit und der gleichzeitigen Aufrechterhaltung eines konsistenten Autonomiegefühls voraussetzt…
Ein zweites strukturelles Merkmal der normalen Persönlichkeit, das zum größten Teil aus der Ich-Identität abgeleitet ist und deren Ausdruck darstellt, ist die Ich-Stärke, die sich insbesondere in einem breiten Spektrum von Affektdispositionen, der Fähigkeit zu Gefühls- und Impulskontrolle und der Fähigkeit der Sublimierung in Arbeit und Werten widerspiegelt (…). Konsistenz, Ausdauer und Kreativität in der Arbeit wie in den zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen stammen auch größtenteils aus der normalen Ich-Identität, wie auch die Fähigkeit zum Vertrauen, zur Gegenseitigkeit und zu Bindungen an andere…
Ein dritter Aspekt der normalen Persönlichkeit ist ein integriertes und reifes Über-Ich, das die Internalisierung von Wertsystemen darstellt, und stabil, entpersonifiziert, abstrakt und individuell und nicht übermäßig von unbewußten infantilen Verboten abhänig ist…
Ein vierter Aspekt … ist eine angemessene und zufriedenstellende Handhabung von libidinösen und aggressiven Impulsen“ zu verfügen, wobei unter ersterem „die Fähigkeit des vollständigen Ausdrucks von sinnlichen und sexuellen Bedürfnissen integriert mit Zärtlichkeit uns emotionalem Engagement einem geliebten anderen gegenüber“, angemessene „Idealisierung des anderen und der Beziehung, unter letzterem „die Fähigkeit der Sublimierung (von Aggression) in Form von Selbstbehauptung, von Widerstand gegen Angriffe ohne Überreaktionen, die protektive Reaktion und die Vermeidung der Wendung von Aggression gegen sich selbst“ zu verstehen ist. “
Die „motivationalen Aspekte“: Affekte und Triebe
Eine besondere Rolle bei der Ausbildung der Persönlichkeitsorganisationen spielen nach Kernberg die sogenannen „motivationalen Aspekte“, das sind Affekte und Triebe.
Hierdurch erfährt auch die triebtheoretische Konzeption der Charakterologie ihre eigenständige Bedeutung in seiner integrativen Konzeption der Persönlichkeit. Allerdings weisen die Definitionen weit über die klassischen analytischen Vorstellungen hinaus und integrieren Erkenntnisse der modernen Affektforschung. Zur Beziehung zwischen Affekten und Trieben schreibt Kernberg:
„Affekte sind die Triebkomponenten menschlichen Verhaltens, d. h. angeborene Dispositionen, die jedem Individuum der menschlichen Gattung gemeinsam sind. Sie erscheinen in frühen Entwicklungsstadien und werden nach und nach in Triebe organisiert, indem sie als Teile von frühen Objektbeziehungen aktiviert werden…Affekte sind angeborene, konstitutionell und genetisch determinierte Reaktionsmodi und werden zu Beginn durch physiologische und Körpererfahrungen und danach allmählich im Laufe der Entwicklung der Objektbeziehungen ausgelöst….Kurzum, Affekte sind die Bausteine der Triebe“
Den Trieben der Aggression und der Libido wird im folgenden je ein Kernaffekt zugeordnet, der jeweils spezifische Wandlungen erfahren kann:
„Wut repräsentiert den Kernaffekt der Aggression als Trieb, und die Wandlungen von Wut erklären meiner Ansicht nach die Ursprünge von Haß und Neid, den vorherrschenden Affekten von schweren Persönlichkeitsstörungen – wie auch von normalem Ärger und Reizbarkeit.
Ähnlich ist der Affekt der sexuellen Erregung der Kernaffekt der Libido. Sexuelle Erregung kristallisiert sich langsam und allmählich aus dem primitiven Affekt von freudiger Erregung und frühen sinnlichen Reaktionen auf intimen Körperkontakt heraus.“
Eine normale Persönlichkeit zeichnet sich nach Kernberg dynamisch im wesentlichen aus durch „Vorrang von libidinösen Bestrebungen vor den aggressiven. Triebneutralisierung bedeutet nach meiner Auffassung die Integration von libidinösen und aggressiven, ursprünglich gespaltenen idealisierten und verfolgenden internalisierten Objektbesetzungen. Sie ist ein Prozeß, der vom Zustand der Separation-Individuation zum Zustand der Objektkonstanz führt und in einem integrierten Konzept des Selbst, einem integrierten Konzept vom „bedeutsamen anderen“ und der Integration von Abkömmlingen von Affektzuständen der aggressiven und libidinösen Reihen in der gedämpfteren, eigenständigen, differenzierten und komplexen Affektdisposition der Phase der Objektkonstanz gipfelt.“ Der Bezug auf M. Mahler ist hier unverkennbar.
Im Gegensatz zur Triebneutralisierung der normalen Persönlichkeit gilt für die schweren Persönlichkeitsstörungen, daß „ein zentraler motivationaler Aspekt…in der Entwicklung von maßloser Agression und der…Psychopathologie von aggressivem Affektausdruck besteht“ während die weniger schwere neurotische Persönlichkeitsstörung durch „die Pathologie der Libido oder der Sexualität im engeren Sinne“ gekennzeichnet ist.
Psychoanalytische Nosologie und genetische Vernetzungen
Psychotische Persönlichkeitsorganisation
„Alle Patienten mit psychotischer Persönlichkeitsorganisation sind in Wirklichkeit atypische Formen von Psychosen. Streggenommen stellt die psychotische Persönlichkeitsorganisation deshalb ein Ausschlußkriterium von Persönlichkeitsstörungen im klinischen Sinne dar.“
—> allgemeine Kennzeichen:
– „das strukturelle Fortbestehen der symbiotischen Entwicklungsphase“
—> Mißlingen der Realitätsprüfung, d.h. „die Fähigkeit, das Selbst vom Nicht-
Selbst und das Intrapsychische von externen Reizen zu unterscheiden und
die Einfühlung in die üblichen sozialen Kriterien der Realität
aufrechtzuerhalten.“
– „Vorherrschen von primitiven Abwehrmechanismen, vorwiegend von Spaltung…und
deren Abkömmlinge (projektive Identifizierung, Verleugnung, primitive Idealisierung,
Omnipotenz, omnipotente Kontrolle und Abwertung)“
—> „Aufrechterhaltung der Trennung von idealisierten und verfolgenden
internalisierten Objektbeziehungen…(um) die überwältigende Kontrolle oder
Zerstörung von idealen Objektbeziehungen durch aggressiv infiltrierte zu
verhindern.“
– „Mangel an Integration des Selbstkonzepts und des Konzepts vom „bedeutsamen
anderen“
—> Identitätsdiffusion
Borderline-Persönlichkeitsorganisation
im engeren Sinne:
- Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung
- schizoide Persönlichkeitsstörung
- schizotypische Persönlichkeitsstörung
- paranoide Persönlichkeitsstörung
- hypomane Persönlichkeitsstörung
- Hypochondrie
- narzißtische Persönlichkeitsstörung
- pathologischer Narzißmus
- antisoziale Persönlichkeitsstörung
—> allgemeine Kennzeichen:
– Identitätsdiffusion
—> schwere Verzerrungen in zwischenmenschlichen Beziehungen,
v.a. in intimen Beziehungen (Pathologie des Sexuallebens)
—> „Mangel an konsistenten Zielsetzungen“ bei Arbeit und Beruf
—> Unsicherheit und Desorientierung in vielen Lebensbereichen
– Ich-Schwäche
—> mangelnde Angsttoleranz, Impulskontrolle und Sublimierung
– primitive Abwehrmechanismen
– verschiedene Ausmaße von Über-Ich-Verlust (namentlich beim antisozialen Verhalten
—> Ausnahme: narzißtische Persönlichkeitsstörung
„Die narzißtische Persönlichkeitsstörung ist deshalb von besonderem Interesse, weil im Gegensatz zu klaren Anzeichen der Identitätsdiffusion bei allen anderen Persönlichkeitsstörungen, die zum Gebiet der Borderlinepersönlichkeitsorganisation gehören, bei der narzißtischen Persönlichkeit der Mangel der Integration des Konzepts der signifikanten anderen Hand in Hand geht mit einem integrierten, aber pathologischen, grandiosen Selbst. Dieses pathologische grandiose Selbst ersetzt den dahinterliegenden Mangel an Integration eines normalen Selbst“.
Zum Begriff des pathologischen Narzißmus:
Durchsetzung des pathologisch grandiosen Selbst mit ichsyntoner Aggression
—> Rücksichtslosigkeit, Sadismus, Haß
—> Kombination von narzißtischer Persönlichkeit, antisozialem Verhalten,
ichsyntoner Aggression und paranoider Tendenzen
im weiteren Sinne („Zwischenebene der Persönlichkeitsstörungen“, mildere Ausprägung der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung)
- zyklothyme Persönlichkeit
- sadomasochistische Persönlichkeit
- infantile oder histrionische Persönlichkeit
- dependente Persönlichkeiten
- „einige der besser funktionierenden narzißtischen Persönlichkeiten“
—> allgemeine Kennzeichen:
– ebenfalls Identitätsdiffusion, aber sie verfügen auch über
– „genügend nicht-konfliktuöse Entwicklungen einiger Ich-Funktionen,
– der Über-Ich-Integration und
– einen günstigen Kreislauf von intimen Verpflichtungen,
– die Fähigkeit zur Befriedigung aus Abhängigkeit und
– eine bessere Anpassung in der Arbeit“
Neurotische Persönlichkeitsorganisation
- hysterische Persönlichkeit
- despressiv-masochistische Persönlichkeit
- Zwangspersönlichkeit
- „viele der sog. vermeidenden Persönlichkeitsstörungen, mit anderen Worten der
„phobischen Charakter“ der psychoanalytischen Literatur“
—> allgemeine Kennzeichen:
– normale Ich-Identität
—> Fähigkeit zu tiefgehenden Objektbeziehungen
– reife Abwehrmechanismen
– Ich-Stärke
—> gute Angsttoleranz, Impulskontrolle, Sublimierungsfähigkeit, Effektivität
und Kreativität
– integriertes Über-Ich
Die Persönlichkeitsstörungen spiegeln „die Internalisierung von Objektbeziehungen unter Bedingungen abnormer affektiver Entwicklung oder Affektkontrolle wider.“ Teilweise gehen sie geradezu in hierarchischer Anordnung auseinander hervor und bilden auch untereinander Verknüpfungen. Das angefügte Schaubild soll eine grobe Übersicht hierüber vermitteln.
Die Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung nach O. Kernberg
Die Diagnosen „Hysterische Persönlichkeitsstörung“ und „Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung“ schließen sich nach Kernberg , wie aus den oben stehenden Ausführungen ersichtlich ist, nicht gegenseitig aus. Dennoch beziehen sie sich trotz ihrer formalen Ähnlichkeit in aller Regel auf zwei verschiedene Strukturniveaus. Die hysterische Persönlichkeitsstruktur weist nämlich zumeist keine Borderlineorganisation auf , sondern gehört zu den Charakterstörungen mit „höherem“ Strukturniveau mit „neurotischer Persönlichkeitsorganisation“. Abgrenzungen scheinen aufgrund der offensichtlich fließenden Übergänge aber dennoch erforderlich, und zwar einerseits in vertikaler Richtung gegen die Störungen von „niederem Strukturniveau“ – hier handelt es sich in erster Linie um die Abgrenzung gegen die „infantile Persönlichkeitsstörung“.
Exkurs: Die Pathologie der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung nach Otto Kernberg
Wer mit der Definition der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur nach Kernberg vertraut ist, kann die nun folgenden Ausführungen überspringen. Ansonsten erscheint es aber unerläßlich, kurz auf die Pathologie der Borderline-Kranken und auf ihre klinische Phänomenologie einzugehen. Dabei kann im wesentlichen auf den früheren Ansatz Kernbergs zurückgegriffen werden, da sich in seinem jüngeren Werk über schwere Persönlichkeitsstörungen (1984) die Erweiterungen in erster Linie auf behandlungstechnische Aspekte beziehen.
Schon zu Beginn seines bereits öfter zitierten Werkes über Borderline-Störungen (1975) weist Kernberg darauf hin, daß die Symptomatik dieser Erkrankung häufig der bei Neurosen und Charakterstörungen ähnelt. „Die Unterscheidung zwischen Borderline-Strukturen und psychotischen Zuständen läßt sich im allgemeinen durchführen (Anm.: Verweis auf Frosch 1964 ); schwieriger ist dagegen in der Regel die Abgrenzung zwischen Borderline Strukturen und Neurosen.“ Die Bezeichnung „Borderline“ sollte nach Kernberg „nur auf solche Patienten angewendet werden, bei denen eine chronische Charakterorganisation besteht, die ihrer Art nach weder typisch neurotisch noch typisch psychotisch genannt werden kann und die gekennzeichnet ist durch
- bestimmte typische Symptomenkomplexe,
- eine typische Konstellation von Abwehrmechanismen des Ichs,
- typische Störungen im Bereich der verinnerlichten Objektbeziehungen und schließlich
- charakteristische genetisch-dynamische Besonderheiten.“
Typische Symptomenkomplexe
Bei den typischen deskriptiv erfaßbaren Symptomenkomplexxen handelt es sich nach Kernberg um
- Leiden „unter einer chronischen, diffusen, frei flottierenden Angst“
- das gemeinsame Auftreten von zwei oder mehreren der folgenden Symptome:
- Polyphobien, auch „Phobien mit Übergangsmerkmalen zur Zwangsneurose hin
(Beschmutzungsängste, Furcht vor Ansteckung)“, „besonders wenn sie mit schweren
sozialen Einschränkungen und paranoiden Tendenzen verbunden sind“, - „Zwangssymptome, die allmählich (sekundär) ich-synton geworden sind und damit die
Qualität „überwertiger“ Ideen und Handlungen angenommen haben; die
Realitätsprüfunf ist hier zwar noch erhalten, der Patient möchte seine absurden
Gedanken oder Handlungen gern loswerden, aber zugleich versucht er sie auch
rationalisierend zu rechtfertigen“, - „Multiple, besonders ausgestaltete oder bizarre Konversionssymptome, vor allem
wenn sie chronifiziert sind; aber auch monosymptomatische schwere, seit Jahren
bestehende Konversions>neurosen<; schließlich auch besonders ausgestaltete
Konversionssymptome, die schon an Körperhalluzinationen grenzen oder die
komplexe Empfindungen oder bizarre Bewegungsabläufe einschließen.“ - „Dissoziative Reaktionen, insbesondere hysterische Dämmerzustände
und Fuguezustände sowie Amnesien in Verbindung mit
Bewußtseinsstörungen.“ - „Hypochondrie. Dieses eher seltene und umstrittene Syndrom gehört wahrscheinlich
eher zu den Charakterstörungen als zu den Symptomneurosen. Es soll aber trotzdem an
dieser Stelle mit angeführt werden, weil eine übermäßige Besorgnis um die eigene
Gesundheit und eine chronische Furcht vor Krankheiten – zumal wenn sich dies äußert
in Form von chronischen körperlichen Beschwerden, rituellen Maßnahmen zur
Gesunderhaltung und Rückzug von sozialen Kontakten, um sich ganz der eigenen
Gesundheit bzw. dem eigenen Leiden zu widmen – recht häufig bei Borderline-
Strukturen vorkommen.“ - „Paranoide und hypochondrische Züge bei ansonsten symptomneurotischen
Zustandsbildern“ als „recht typische Kombination“. Dabei „geht es nur um Patienten
mit eindeutigen und relativ starken paranoiden oder hypochondrischen Zügen, die nicht
als sekundäre Folge starker Angst aufzufassen sind.“
- Polyphobien, auch „Phobien mit Übergangsmerkmalen zur Zwangsneurose hin
- „Polymorph-perverse Tendenzen im Sexualverhalten“:
„Je chaotischer und vielgestaltiger die perversen Phantasien und Handlungen und je labiler
die mit solchen Interaktionen verbundenen Objektbeziehungen sind, desto eher ist eine
Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur zu erwägen. Bizarre Perversionsformen, besonders wenn
sie mit primitiven Aggressionsäußerungen oder auch mit einer Ersetzung genitaler durch
urethrale und anale Triebziele (Urinieren, Defäzieren) einhergehen, erwecken ebenfalls den
Verdacht auf das Vorliegen einer Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur.“ - Das Vorliegen von „>klassischen< präpsychotischen Persönlichkeitsstrukturen“, als da
wären:„1. Die paranoide Persönlichkeit (hier stehen paranoide Züge derart im Vordergrund,
daß sie allein schon für die deskriptive Diagnose entscheidend sind);
2. die schizoide Persönlichkeit
3. die hypomanische (hyperthyme) Persönlichkeit und die sogenannte zyklothyme
Persönlichkeitsstruktur mit starken hypomanischen Zügen.
Ich möchte betonen, daß chronisch-depressive Patienten mit ausgeprägten masochistischen
Charakterzügen oder auch die von Laughlin (1956) beschriebene „depressive
Persönlichkeit“ nicht zu dieser Kategorie der präpsychotischen Persönlichkeitsstrukturen zu
rechnen sind, obschon die Depression als Syndrom gelegentlich Merkmale aufweist, die im
Grenzbereich (borderline) zwischen neurotischer und psychotischer Depression liegen.“ (Kernberg) - „Impulsneurosen und Suchten“:
Damit sind gemeint„Formen von schweren Charakterstörungen, bei denen es chronisch immer
wieder zu Impulsdurchbrüchen mit Befriedigung von Triebbedürfnissen kommt, und zwar mit der
Besonderheit, daß diese Art von Triebbefriedigung außerhalb der „triebhaften“ Episoden ich-dyston,
während dieser Episoden aber ich-synton und sogar hochgradig lustvoll erlebt wird. Der Alkoholismus
und andere Suchten, aber auch bestimmte Formen psychogener Fettsucht und Kleptomanie sind
hierfür typische Beispiele. Überschneidungen mit der Gruppe der Perversionen ergeben sich
bei bestimmten Formen sexueller Abweichungen, wo das perverse Symptom nur episodisch
ausagiert wird, wohingegen der perverse Impuls außerhalb solcher Episoden ich-dyston ist,
ja sogar oft heftig abgelehnt wird. Fließende Übergänge bestehen auch zur Gruppe
der „agierenden“ („acting-out“) Persönlichkeitsstörungen (…), die sich nur
quantitativ von den hier behandelten Störungen unterscheiden: Während die
Impulsneurosen vorwiegend um eine bestimmte Triebhandlung zentriert sind, die zeitweilig
ich-synton wird und die unmittelbar auf Triebbefriedigung zielt, findet man bei den
„agierenden“ Charakterstörungen eher eine global sehr mangelhafte Triebkontrolle mit
ziemlich chaotischen Kombinationen von Triebimpuls und Triebabwehr in verschiedenen
Bereichen, dagegen weniger diese eindeutige Ich-Syntonizität und die ungebrochene
Direktheit in der Befriedigung eines bestimmten Triebimpulses.“ (Kernberg) - „Charakterstörungen von „niederem Strukturniveau““:
„Hier sind schwere Charakterstörungen vom Typ des chaotischen, triebhaften Charakters gemeint, im Gegensatz etwa zu den klassischen „reaktiven“ (auf Reaktionsbildung beruhenden) Charaktertypen
und den ebenfalls weniger gestörten „gehemmten“ (durch Vermeidungsverhalten
gekennzeichneten) Charaktertypen.“ Bereits 1966 hatte Kernberg einen
Klassifizierungsvorschlag für Charakterstörungen gemacht, „wonach man diese in einer
kontinuierlichen Reihe ordnen kann, und zwar vom „höheren“ bis zum „niederen“
Strukturniveau („higher level“ vs. „lower level“ character disorders), je nachdem, ob
Verdrängungs- oder aber Spaltungsmechanismen in der Abwehrstruktur überwiegen. Vom
klinischen Standpunkt sind beispielsweise die typischen hysterischen Persönlichkeiten
meistens keine Borderline-Struktren; dasselbe gilt für die Mehrzahl der Zwangscharaktere
und für die „depressive Persönlichkeit“ (Laughlin 1956) sowie auch für relativ gut integrierte
masochistische Charaktertypen. Im Gegensatz dazu liegt vielen infantilen Persönlichkeiten
und den meisten narzißtischen Persönlichkeiten, zu denen auch die sogenannten „Als ob“-
Persönlichkeiten gehören, eine Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur zugrunde. Ich habe auch
bei allen diagnostisch eindeutigen antisozialen Persönlichkeiten, die ich untersucht habe,
regelmäßig eine typische Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur feststellen können.“ (Kernberg)
Die drei Bedeutungen des Strukturbegriffes nach Kernberg
- als Bezeichnung der drei großen Freudschen psychischen Strukturen Es, Ich und Über-Ich, insbesondere um „den „strukturellen“ vom „topischen“ oder „topographischen“ Gesichtspunkt“ abzugrenzen:
- im Sinne von Hartmann, Loewenstein und Kris (1946) sowie von Rapaport und Gill (1959), wonach das Ich eine psychische Instanz sei, „die sich zusammensetzt aus (a) „Strukturen“, d.h. Konfigurationen mit langsamer Veränderungsrate, die für die Kanalisierung psychischer Prozesse verantwortlich sind; (b) diesen psychischen Prozessen bzw. „Funktionen“ selbst und schließlich den sogenannten „Schwellen“. Im klinischen Sprachgebrauch findet man diese zweite Verwendungsweise des Begriffs „strukturell“ unter anderem in der Beschreibung kognitiver Strukturen (hierzu gehört insbesondere die Unterscheidung zwischen Primärprozeß- und Sekundärprozeßdenken) und Abwehrstrukturen (d.h. Konstellationen von Abwehrmechanismen und Abwehraspekten des Charakters).
- Struktur im Sinne einer Analyse der Strukturabkömmlinge verinnerlichter Objektbeziehungen (Fairbairn 1951, Kernberg 1966).“
Bei Betrachtung der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung unter den o.g. strukturellen Gesichtspunkten findet Kernberg in schwerpunktmäßiger Zusammenfassung der Besonderheiten
„bestimmte Abwehrkonstellationen des Ichs, nämlich einerseits eine Kombination verschiedener unspezifischer Anzeichen von Ichschwäche und eine Tendenz zu primärprozeßhaften Denkformen, zum anderen eine Reihe spezifischer primitiver Abwehrmechanismen (Spaltung, primitive Idealisierung, Frühformen der Projektion, Verleugnung, Allmachtsphantasien)“, ferner „eine besondere Störung der verinnerlichten Objektbeziehungen“ (Kernberg)
Zu den „unspezifischen“ Anzeichen von Ichschwäche zählt Kernberg in Anlehnung an Wallerstein und Robbins 1956
„1. eine mangelhafte Angsttoleranz,
2. eine mangelshafte Impulskontrolle und
3. mangelhaft entwickelte Sublimierungen.“ (Kernberg)
Bezüglich des dritten Punktes stellt Kernberg fest:
„Kreative Genußfähigkeit und kreative Leistungsfähigkeit sind die beiden wichtigsten Aspekte der Sublimierungsfähigkeit; sie sind auch vielleicht die besten Indikatoren dafür, in welchem Ausmaß der Patient über eine konfliktfreie Ichsphäre verfügt, und daher ist umgekehrt ihr Fehlen ein wichtiger Indikator für eine Ichschwäche.“ (Kernberg)
Die „Regression zu primärprozeßhaften Denkformen (ist) immer noch das wichtigste strukturelle Kriterium für eine Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur.“ Der Nachweis dieser Denkform gelingt „hauptsächlich durch die Anwendung projektiver Tests“.
Die spezifischen Abwehrmechanismen der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstörung
Zu den spezifischen Abwehrmechanismen hier nur einige Stichworte:
Spaltung
Es handelt sich hier nach Kernberg „um einen zentralen Abwehrmechanismus der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur, der auch allen im folgenden noch beschriebenen Mechanismen zugrunde liegt.“ Dabei verwendet er diesen Begriff der Spaltung in einem eng umschriebenen Sinn „als Bezeichnung für das aktive Auseinanderhalten konträrer Introjektionen und Identifizierungen“, was wiederum die bei Gesunden erfolgende „Neutralisierung“ aggressiver durch Legierung mit libidinösen Triebabkömmlingen behindert. Hierdurch wird die Ichentwicklung ebenfalls erheblich gestört, sodaß „Spaltungsprozesse“ als „eine Hauptursache der Ichschwäche“ angesehen werden muß.
Klinisch imponiert diese Spaltung dadurch,
- daß „gegensätzliche Seiten eines Konflikts abwechselnd die Szene beherrschen, wobei der Patient in bezug auf die jeweilige andere Seite eine blande Verleugnung zeigt und über die Widersprüchlichkeit seines Verhaltens und Erlebens überhaupt nicht betroffen zu sein scheint.“
- daß es zu einer „>mangelhaften Impulskontrolle< selektiver Art“ kommt, „die also nur in bestimmten Bereichen besteht und gekennzeichnet ist durch episodische Durchbrüche primitiver und zu dem betreffenden Zeitpunkt völlig ichsyntoner Impulse.“
- daß sich „extreme Schwankungen zwischen konträren Selbstkonzepten“ zeigen können
- daß sich häufig eine „Aufteilung äußerer Objekte in >total gute< und >total böse< (bzw. >total schlechte<)“ findet, „wobei ein Objekt ganz abrupt und total seinen Charakter von einem Extrem zum anderen verändern kann“.
Primitive Idealisierung
„Hierunter verstehe ich die Neigung, (bestimmte) äußere Objekte zu >total guten> zu machen, damit sie einen gegen die bösen Objekte beschützen und damit sie nicht von der eigenen oder der auf andere Objekte projizierten Aggression in Frage gestellt, entwertet oder gar zerstört werden können.“ (Kernberg)
Kernberg weist darauf hin, daß durch diesen Mechanismus „die Entwicklung des Ich-Ideals und des Über-Ichs in negativem Sinne beeinflußt wird.“ Er grenzt die „primitive“ Idealisierung gegen reifere Formen der Idealisierung ab: „Es handelt sich hier … nicht um eine Reaktionsbildung (Anm.: wie zum Beispiel bei depressiven Patienten), sondern um die unmittelbare Manifestation einer primitiven Phantasiestruktur, in der es gar nicht um eine wirkliche Hochschätzung der idealisierten Person geht, sondern ausschließlich um deren Eignung als Beschützer gegen eine Welt voller gefährlicher Objekte.“ Außerdem befriedige dieser Mechanismus „narzißtische Bedürfnisse“, indem man durch die Idealisierung „an der Größe des idealisierten Objekts teilhaben kann“.
Projektive Identifizierung
Weil die „Externalisierung der >total bösen<, aggressiven (oder auch der >total schlechten<, entwerteten) Selbst- und Objektimagines durch Projektion aufgrund der Ichschwäche der Patienten und der großen Intensität der Projektion „nur sehr unvolkommen“ gelingt, kommt es „leicht zu einer umschriebenen Schwächung der Ichgrenzen im Bereich der Projektion von Aggression“ und dazu, „daß der Patient sich mit dem Objekt, auf das er seine Aggression projiziert hat, gleichzeitig noch identifiziert fühlt.“ Das wiederum hat zur Folge, „daß diese weiter fortbestehende >empathische< Beziehung zu dem mittlerweile bedrohlich gewordenen Objekt die Angst vor der eigenen projizierten Aggression weiterhin aufrechterhält und noch verstärkt. Der Patient muß daher dieses als bedrohlich erlebte Objekt unter Kontrolle halten, um zu verhindern, daß es ihn unter dem Einfluß (projizierter) aggressiver Impulse angreift; er muß das Objekt beherrschen und eher selber angreifen, bevor er (wie er fürchtet) vom Objekt überwältigt und zerstört wird. Zusamenfassend ist die projektive Identifizierung also durch folgende Besonderheiten gekennzeichnet: zum einen die mangelhafte Selbst-Objekt-Differenzierung in diesem einen Bereich; sodann die Besonderheit, daß der Impuls sowie auch die Angst vo diesem Impuls bei dieser Form von Projektion im Erleben präsent bleiben; schließlich die daraus resultierende Notwendigkeit, das äußere Objekt ständig unter Kontrolle zu halten.“
Auch diese „projektive Verzerrung der Objektimagines im aggressiven Sinne wirkt sich in der Folge…auf die Überich-Entwicklung pathologisch aus.“
Verleugnung
Im Gegensatz zur „reiferen“ Form der Verleugnung, die der Verdrängung nahesteht, hat die Verleugung bei Borderline-Patienten charakteristische Kennzeichen:
- „z.B. die >wechselseitige Verleugnung< zweier emotional gegensätzlicher und verselbständigter Bewußtseinsbereiche“, die eigentlich „zur Unterstützung eines Spaltungsvorganges“ dient. Obwohl der Patient dabei weiß, daß er zu anderer Zeit anders gedacht, wahrgenommen und gefühlt hat, hat „dieses Wissen … für ihn keinerlei motionale Relevanz, er vermag nichts an seinen derzeitige Gefühlen zu ändern.“ Trotz besseren Wissens fehlt die Fähigkeit, alternierende „Ichzustände emotional miteinander in Verbindung zu bringen.“
- z.b. imponiert mancher Patient dadurch, daß er „einen bestimmten Sektor seines inneren subjektiven Erlebens oder der wahrgenommenen Außenwelt ignoriert, nicht wahrhaben will. Unter dem Druck einer Konfrontation wird er zwar zugeben, daß er rein verstandesmäßig um den verleugneten Bereich >weiß<, aber er kann wiederum dieses Wissen gar nicht mit seinem sonstigen emotionalen Erleben integrieren.“ Dieses Wissen um das vordergründig Verleugnete unterscheidet die primitive von reiferen Formen der Verleugnung und stellt ein wichtiges differentialdiagnostisches Kriterium dar.
Kernberg erwähnt noch die Form der Verleugnung bei manisch-depressiven Patienten in den manischen Phasen als Zwischenniveau und stellt abschließend fest:
„Die Verleugnung umfaßt also ein breites Spektrum von Abwehrvorgängen unterschiedlichen Funktionsniveaus, wobei wahrscheinlich >auf höherem Niveau< Beziehungen zur Isolierung und anderen reiferen Formen der Affektabwehr (Distanzierung, Verleugnung in der Phantasie, Verleugnung in Wort und Handlung), >auf niederem Niveau< dagegen Beziehungen zur Spaltung bestehen.“ (Kernberg)
Allmacht (Omnipotenz) und Entwertung
„Diese beiden Mechanismen stehen ebenfalls in engem Zusammenhang mit der Spaltung; sie sind außerdem direkte Manifestationen der Benutzung primitiver Introjektionen und Identifizierungen zu Abwehrzwecken.“ (Kernberg)
- Omnipotenz und Allmacht:
Sowohl dem bei Borderline-Patienten häufig beobachteten „Bedürfnis, eine ansprüchliche und anklammernde Beziehung zu einem idealisierten, >magisch< überhöhten Objekt herzustellen“, als dem zu anderen Zeiten sichtbaren Phänomen, daß „die Phantasien und das Verhalten dieser Patienten selbst von einem tiefen Gefühl eigener magischer Omnipotenz durchdrungen sind“, „liegt eine Identifikation mit einem >total guten< Objekt zugrunde, das zum Schutz gegen böse >verfolgende< Objekte idealisiert und mit Allmacht ausgestattet wird.“ Aber: „Es handelt sich hier nicht um eine echte >Abhängigkeit< im Sinne wirklicher Liebe und Rücksichtnahme gegenüber dem Idealobjekt. Denn im Grunde behandelt der Patient diese idealisierte Person ziemlich rücksichtslos und possessiv, quasi wie ein Anhängsel seiner selbst.“ Durch das Allmachtsgefühl glaubt sich der Patient häufig auch berechtigt, Ansprüche „auf besondere Privilegien“ erheben zu können. - Für die Tendenz zur Entwertung äußerer Objekte erkennt Kernberg mehrere Gründe:
- as Fortfallen einer Bedürfnisbefriedigung durch das idealisierte Objekt. Die fehlende Liebe begünstigt diesen raschen Wechsel
- Zerstörung des Objekts aus Rache, weil dieses die Bedürfnisse frustriert hat
- Entwertung als Abwehr, „indem sie verhindern soll, daß diese Objekte zu gefürchteten und gehaßten >Verfolgern< werden.“
„Alle diese Motive wirken meistens zusammen, denn die Entwertung ist vor allem eine Abwehr gegen das Bedürfnis nach anderen Menschen und gegen die Angst vor ihnen.Die Entwertung bedeutsamer Primärobjekte aus der Vergangenheit des Patienten wirkt sich außerordentlich schädlich auf die verinnerlichten Objektbeziehungen aus, und zwar insbesondere auf diejenigen Strukturen, die bei der Bildung und Integration des Über-Ichs eine Rolle spielen.“ (Kernberg)
Typische Störungen im Bereich der verinnerlichten Objektbeziehungen
Im Gegensatz zu psychotischen Patienten ist der Borderline-Patient nach Kernberg in der Lage, ausreichend zwischen Selbst und Objekten zu differenzieren und damit auch die Ichgrenzen stabil zu halten. Jedoch gelingt ihm weder die Integration widersprüchlicher Objekt repräsentanzen noch die widersprüchlicher Selbstrepräsentanzen. Neben dem Fehlen eines integrierten Selbstkonzeptes mangelt es hierdurch auch an einer realistischen Einschätzung äußerer Objekte, umso mehr, als die total bösen Selbst- und Objektrepräsentanzen
Nach Kernberg bilden sich bei Borderline-Patienten aufgrund folgender ätiologischer Faktoren pathologische verinnerlichte Objektbeziehungen aus:
- „Übermaß an primärer Aggression“
- Übermaß an „sekundärer, frustrationsbedingter Aggression“
- „bestimmte Entwicklungsdefekte der primären Ich-Apparate“
- „mangelhafte Angsttoleranz“
Die genannten ätiologischen Faktoren ihrerseits bringen „mannigfache pathologische Konsequenzen mit sich“:
- Beeinträchtigung der „Modulierung und Differenzierung der Affektdispositionen des Ichs“ „durch die mangelhafte Legierung libidinöser mit aggressiven Triebabkömmlngen“
- Die „besondere Affektdisposition, die etwas mit der Ichfähigkeit, Depression, Anteilnahme und Schuldgefühle zu empfinden, zu tun hat, (kann) gar nicht erlangt werden, solange positive und negative Introjektionen noch nicht zusammengekommen sind.“ So sind Borderline-Patienten oft nicht in der Lage, echte Schuldgefühle und echte Anteilnahme u erleben, und ihre „Depression“ ist primitiv geblieben und trägt „eher den Charakter einer ohnmächtigen Wut oder der Kapitulation vor übermächtigen äußeren Gegebenheiten als den der Trauer um ein verlorenes gutes Objekt oder des Bedauerns über die eigene Aggression gegen sich selbst und andere.“
- schwere Beeinträchtigung der Überich-Integration durch
- das unverbundene Koexistieren total guter und total böser Objektimagines sowie durch
- die pathologische Zusammensetzung des Ich-Ideals
„Primitive Überich-Vorläufer sadistischer Art, die sich aus verinnerlichten bösen Objektimagines im Zusammenhang mit prägenitalen Konflikten gebildet haben, sind derart übermächtig und unerträglich, daß sie wieder auf äußere Objekte projiziert werden müssen, die dadurch ihrerseits zu bösen Objekten werden.
Aber auch die überidealisierten Objektimagines und die >total guten< Selbstimagines können nur phantastische Ideale von Macht, Größe und Vollkommenheit hervorbringen, nicht aber die realistischeren Ansprüche und Ziele, die normalerweise aus einer gelungen Überich-Integration hervorgehen – mit anderen Worten: auch die Zusammensetzung des Ich-Ideals behindert hier die Über-Ich-Integration.
Infolge dieser gestörten Überich-Integration werden nun die fordernden und die verbietenden Aspekte der vorhandenen Überich-Anteile ständig projiziert.“
Charakteristische genetisch-dynamische Besonderheiten
Es geht hierbei im wesentlichen um die „typischen Triebinhalte der Konflikte in verinnerlichten Objektbeziehungen bei Patienten mit Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur“.
Hier bezieht sich Kernberg v.a. auf die Arbeiten M. Kleins:
„Ihre Beschreibung des engen Zusammenhangs zwischen prägenitalen, insbesondere oralen Konflikten einerseits und frühen ödipalen Konflikten andererseits, wie sie unter dem Einfluß übermäßig starker prägenitaler Aggression zustande kommen, ist hauptsächlich für die Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur relevant.“ (Kernberg)
An dieser Stelle nimmt Kernberg jedoch auch gravierende persönliche Abgrenzungen gegenüber Klein vor. So kritisiert er
- ihre „Annahme, daß ödipale Konflikte bereits im ersten Lebensjahr ziemlich vollständig entwickelt seien“, wo dies doch „gerade ein besonderes Kennzeichen der Borderline-Persönlichkeitsstruktur im Gegensatz zu weniger schweren Störungen“sei,
- ihr Postulat eines unbewußten Wissens um die Genitalorgane beider Geschlechter, welches Kernberg „unannehmbar“ findet sowie
- die fehlende Berücksichtigung struktureller Entwicklungen in ihrer Konzeptualisierung internalisierter Objekte und des Über-Ichs und „ihre Mißachtung gegenüber den Erkenntnissen der modernen Ich-Psychologie“ .
In den Frühphasen der Entwicklung bei Borderline-Patienten findet sich nach Kernberg ein „Übermaß an prägenitaler, vor allem oraler Aggression“, welche „vorwiegend projektiv verarbeitet“ wird und dadurch eine „paranoide Verzerrung der frühen Elternimagines, besonders der Mutter“ bewirkt.
„Durch die Projektion überwiegend oral-sadistischer, aber auch anal-sadistischer Impulse wird die Mutter immer als potentiell gefährlich erlebt; der gleichzeitig bestehende Haß auf die Mutter weitet sich bald auch auf den Vater aus, so daß dann später beide vom Kind als bedrohliches „vereinigtes Elternpaar“ erlebt werden. Eine derartige „Kontaminierung“ des Vaterbildes durch ursprünglich nur auf die Mutter projizierte Aggression bei ungenügender Differenzierung zwischen Mutter und Vater (da eine realitätsgerechte Differenzierung zwischen verschiedenen Objekten unter dem Einfluß exzessiver Spaltungsprozesse nur sehr mangelhaft gelingen kann) führt bei Kindern beiderlei Geschlechts häufig zur Verinnerlichung einer als überaus gefährlich erlebten „vereinigten Vater-Mutter-Imago“, was wiederum zur Folge hat, daß später alle sexuellen Beziehungen als bedrohlich und aggressiv durchsetzt erlebt werden.
Gleichzeitig setzt aus dem Bemühen heraus, von oraler Wut und oralen Ängsten loszukommen, eine vorzeitige Entwicklung genitaler Triebstrebungen ein, die aber oft auch nicht zum angestrebten Ziele führt weil die übermäßig starke prägenitale Aggression auch die genitalen Triebstrebungen durchsetzt, so daß vielfältige pathologische Entwicklungen sich ergeben, die nun beim Jungen und beim Mädchen unterschiedlich verlaufen.“ (Kernberg)
Trotz dieses Hinweises auf den unterschiedlichen Verlauf bei beiden Geschlechtern, dessen Rekonstruktion ohnehin sehr hypothetisch anmuten, bleibt festzuhalten, daß die „Endstrecke“ der Entwicklung bei Jungen und Mädchen offenbar sehr ähnlich ist:
Beim Jungen wird nach Kernberg entweder die Ausbildung eines negativen Ödipuskomplex in der femininen Position, also „sexuelle Unterwerfung unter den Vater“ bzw. die Ausbildung einer „vorwiegend oral orientierten Form männlicher Homosexualität“ oder promiskuöser heterosexueller Beziehungen als Versuch, „sich in pseudogenitalen Beziehungen zu Frauen unbewußt an der oral frustrierenden Mutter (zu) rächen…“ gefördert.
Auch das Mädchen zeigt häufig „die Flucht in die Promiskuität“, diese aber, um dadurch „den Penisneid und die Abhängigkeit von Männern zu verleugnen, aber auch als Ausdruck besonders starker unbewußter Schuldgefühle wegen ödipaler Wünsche.“ Wie beim Jungen gibt es häufig auch den Weg über den Verzicht auf Heterosexualität in die Homosexualität, nicht nur im Sinne einer „Unterwerfung unter die ödipale Mutter, sondern es geht dabei auch um die Erlangung oraler und überhaupt prägenitaler Befriedigungen durch idealisierte „Partial“-Mutterfiguren.“
Literatur
Kernberg, Otto (1970)
„A Psychoanalytic Classification of Character Pathology“
in: Objektbeziehungen und Praxis der Psychoanalyse, S. 139
Kernberg, Otto (1975)
„Borderline-Störungen und pathologischer Narzißmus“
Suhrkamp Taschenbuch Wissenschaft, Frankfurt, 8. Aufl. 1995
Kernberg, Otto (1976)
„Objektbeziehungen und Praxis der Psychoanalyse“
Klett, Cotta, Stuttgart, 5. veränd. Aufl. 1992
Kernberg, Otto (1984)
„Schwere Persönlichkeitsstörungen“
Klett-Cotta, Stuttgart, 4. Aufl. 1992
Kernberg, Otto (1996)
„Ein psychoanalytisches Modell der Klassifizierung von Persönlichkeitsstörungen“
Psychotherapeut (1996) 41: 288-296

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